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Discuss what three concepts, ideas, or aspects of chapters 3 and 4 stood out to you the most, and why.
Be sure to include some specific details and perhaps even share how your new knowledge of the brain, sensation, and perception may impact your daily life in a positive way.Chapter 5
States of Consciousness
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Chapter Preview
• Consciousness
• Sleep and Dreams
• Psychoactive Drugs
• Hypnosis
• Mediation
3-2
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The Nature of Consciousness
What is consciousness?
awareness
• of external events and
internal sensations which
occurs under conditions of
Arousal
• ways that awareness is
regulated: alert versus
relaxed/drowsy
• reticular activating system
global brain workspace
3-3
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Theory of Mind
Knowledge that People Think and Have Private
Experiences
• Individuals with autism spectrum disorder lack TOM
3-4
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Levels of Awareness (1 of 4)
Higher-Level Consciousness
• controlled processing
• executive function
• Planning, problem solving
• Actively focus efforts toward
a goal
• requires attention
3-5
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Levels of Awareness (2 of 4)
Lower-Level Consciousness
• automatic processes
• require little attention/conscious effort
• do not interfere with other ongoing activities
• Daydreaming
• wandering thoughts
• fantasy, imagination, rumination
• potentially useful (reminding, solving)
3-6
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Levels of Awareness (3 of 4)
Altered States of
Consciousness
• drug states
• fatigue, illness,
trauma, deprivation
• meditation, hypnosis
• mental disorders
3-7
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Levels of Awareness (4 of 4)
Subconscious Awareness
• Incubation
• parallel processing
Sleep and Dreams
• low levels of consciousness of outside world
No Awareness
• unconscious (censored) thought—Freud
• non-conscious processes
3-8
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Biological Rhythms
Periodic Physiological Fluctuations
1. Annual or seasonal
2. 24-hour cycles = circadian rhythms
• monitored by suprachiasmatic nucleus
• controlled by biological clocks
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3-9
Biological Clocks
Desynchronizing the Clock
• jet lag
• shift-work problems
Resetting the Clock
• bright light
• melatonin
3-10
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Why Do We Need Sleep?
Adaptive Evolutionary Function
• Safety
• energy conservation/ efficiency
Restorative Function
• body rejuvenation & growth
Brain Plasticity
• enhances synaptic connections
• memory consolidation
3-11
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Sleep Deprivation
Chronic sleep deprivation results in…
• decreased activity in thalamus and prefrontal
cortex
• inability to sustain attention
• poor decision making and problem solving
Why are Americans sleep deprived?
3-12
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Stages of Sleep (1 of 6)
EEG measures electrical
activity in the brain
• identifies stages of
wakefulness and sleep.
Wakefulness
•
beta waves (W-alert)
•
•
•
high frequency
low amplitude
desynchronous
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3-13
Stages of Sleep (2 of 6)
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain
• identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep.
Wakefulness
• alpha waves (W-relaxed)
• Lower frequency
• increase in amplitude
• synchronous
3-14
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Stages of Sleep (3 of 6)
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain
• identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep.
Stage N-1
• theta waves
• Even slow frequency
• low amplitude (but greater than alpha)
3-15
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Stages of Sleep (4 of 6)
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain
• identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep.
Stage N-2
• Continued theta waves, plus:
• sleep spindles: sudden increase in wave
frequency
• still light sleep
3-16
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Stages of Sleep (5 of 6)
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain
• identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep.
Stage N-3
• delta waves
• slowest frequency and highest amplitude
• deep sleep
• bedwetting, sleep walking, sleep talking
3-17
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Stages of Sleep (6 of 6)
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain
• identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep.
Stage R (REM Sleep)
• Rapid Eye Movements
• EEG similar to relaxed wakefulness
• dreaming
3-18
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Sleep Cycles
Typically 5 cycles a night
90 to 100 minutes per cycle
Sleep patterns change during the night.
Typical night includes
• 60% – Stages N1 & N2 sleep
• 20% – Stage N3 sleep
• 20% – REM sleep
3-19
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Sleep and the Brain
Reticular Formation
• critical role in sleep and arousal
Neurotransmitters (NT)
• serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine
• levels vary across sleep stages
3-20
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Sleep Across the Life Span
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3-21
Sleep and Disease
Sleep problems common in diabetes, heart/liver
disease, pneumonia.
Infectious diseases induce sleep.
Sleep problems are common in those with mental
disorders.
3-22
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Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
Sleep Walking, Talking, and Eating
Nightmares and Night terrors
Narcolepsy
Sleep Apnea
3-23
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Theories of Dreaming
Historical and Religious
Significance
Freud’s Psychodynamic
Approach
• manifest and latent content
Cognitive Theory
• information processing and
memory
• general life concerns,
preoccupations
Activation-Synthesis Theory
• brain makes “sense” out of
random brain activity
3-24
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Psychoactive Drugs (1 of 2)
Act on nervous system to:
• alter consciousness
• modify perceptions
• change moods
Why do people take drugs?
What are the trends in adolescent use?
3-25
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Psychoactive Drugs: Effects on Users
Direct and indirect health
effects
School, work, and
relationship problems
3-26
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Psychoactive Drugs (2 of 2)
Continued use can lead to…
• Tolerance
• Addiction
• Physical dependence and
unpleasant withdrawal
• Psychological dependence
3-27
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Drugs and the Brain
How does the brain become addicted?
Dopamine in reward pathways
3-28
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Reward Pathway for Psychoactive Drugs
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3-29
Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (1 of 5)
Slow down mental and physical activity
3-30
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Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (2 of 5)
Alcohol
• Slows down inhibition & judgment areas of brain
• Increases GABA
• Overdose can lead to sleep, coma, death
• Linked to violence/aggression/irresponsible behaviors
• Alcoholism (1 in 9 drinkers)
3-31
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Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (3 of 5)
Barbiturates
•
•
•
•
•
Nembutal / Seconal
Makes sleepy
Can lead to memory loss, impaired functioning, death
Highly addictive, risk of seizure with abrupt withdrawal
Medical use has been replace by tranquilizers
3-32
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Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (4 of 5)
Tranquilizers
•
•
•
•
Valium / Xanax
Reduce anxiety, induce relaxation
Can lead to drowsiness, confusion
Highly addictive
3-33
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Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (5 of 5)
Opioids
• Narcotics (Opium / Heroine / Morphine / Methodone)
• Pain killer
• Act on endorphin receptors
• Can lead to euphoria, increased appetites, death
• Highly addictive, painful withdrawal
3-34
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Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (1 of 5)
Increase CNS Activity
Caffeine
• Most widely used psychoactive drug
• Coffee, Tea, Certain Soft Drinks, Energy Drinks,
Chocolate
• Can lead to mood changes, anxiety, insomnia,
headaches
• Withdrawal symptoms include apathy, concentration
difficulties
3-35
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Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (2 of 5)
Increase CNS Activity
Nicotine
• Tobacco
• Enormous health risks
• Alleviates anger/anxiety/pain, can improve alertness
• Withdrawal symptoms include irritability, appetite,
distraction
3-36
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Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (3 of 5)
Increase CNS Activity
Amphetamines
• Used to boost energy, stay awake, curb appetite, ADHD
• Crystal Meth: Intense high; huge come-down
3-37
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Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (4 of 5)
Increase CNS Activity
Cocaine
• Half hour rush followed by agitation/depression
• Crack, perhaps most addictive substance known
3-38
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Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (5 of 5)
Increase CNS Activity
MDMA (Ecstasy)
• Also halucinogenic
• Users tend to feel warm bonds with others
• Increased sexual risk-taking
• Releases serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine
• Impairs memory and cognition
3-39
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Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens
(1 of 3)
Modify perceptual experiences
3-40
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Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens
(2 of 3)
Modify Perceptual Experiences
Marijuana
• Hemp, Cannabis sativa / Hashish / THC
• Affects anandamide receptors, widely distributed in the
brain
• Mixture of psychological effects: Hard to classify
• Affects mood, appetite, blood pressure.
• Smoking can damage lungs
• Medical uses: AIDS, cancer, pain.
3-41
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Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens
(3 of 3)
Modify Perceptual Experiences
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
•
•
•
•
Visual hallucinations. Time perception prolonged
Pleasurable or grotesque/horrific
Primarily acts on serotonin
Can result in mood swings, impaired attention/memory
3-42
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Hypnosis (1 of 2)
Hypnosis is marked by…
• altered attention and expectation
• unusual receptiveness to suggestions
3-43
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Hypnosis (2 of 2)
Four Steps in Hypnosis
1. Distractions are minimized
2. Told to concentrate on
something specific
3. Told what to expect
4. Certain obvious
events/feelings are suggested
There are individual variations in
ability to be hypnotized.
3-44
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Explaining Hypnosis
Divided State of Consciousness
• obedient to hypnotist
• hidden observer
Social Cognitive Behavior
• normal conscious state
• social expectations for how to act hypnotized
3-45
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Uses of Hypnosis
Hypnosis is used to…
• treat various health issues
• alcoholism
• smoking
• somnambulism
• PTSD
• effectiveness is debatable
• Can reduce experience of pain.
3-46
©McGraw-Hill Education
Meditation
A peaceful state of mind, not occupied by worry
Mindfulness meditation used to treat a variety of
conditions (for example, depression, stress, chronic
pain).
Lovingkindness meditation reduces prejudice.
3-47
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Chapter Review
Discuss the nature of consciousness.
Explain the nature of sleep and dreams.
Identify the uses and types of psychoactive drugs.
Describe hypnosis.
Discuss the role of the conscious mind in constructing a
happy and healthy life.
3-48
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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception
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CHAPTER PREVIEW: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Basic
Principles
Vision
Other
Senses
Hearing
Health
and
Wellness
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BASIC PRINCIPLES
Sensation
the process of receiving stimulus energies
from the external environment
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting
sensory information
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SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
• Bottom-Up Processing
– initiated by sensory input
– outside world’s influence on perception
• Top-Down Processing
– initiated by cognitive processing
– internal/mental world’s influence on perception
• expectations & prior understanding
Unified Information Processing System
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SENSATION
Sensory Receptors
– specialized cells that selectively detect and transmit sensory
information to the brain
– cells send signals via distinct neural pathways
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SENSATION
• Synesthesia
one sense induces an
experience in another sense
(e.g., lexical or grapheme
synesthesia)
• Phantom Limb Pain
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SENSATION
• Photoreception (vision)
detection of light
• Mechanoreception (touch)
detection of pressure, vibration, and movement
• Chemoreception (smell and taste)
detection of chemical stimuli
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SENSORY THRESHOLDS
Absolute Threshold
the minimum amount of energy an organism can detect 50%
of the time
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SENSORY THRESHOLDS
Noise
irrelevant and competing stimuli
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SENSORY THRESHOLDS
Difference Thresholds
– how much stimulus change is necessary for detection?
– Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
• JND increases with stimulus
magnitude
Courtesy of X-Rite, Inc.
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SENSORY THRESHOLDS
Weber’s Law
to be perceived as different,
two stimuli must differ
by a constant minimum percentage
(not a constant amount)
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SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION
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SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION
• Influence of information below the level of conscious
awareness
• Vicary: EAT POPCORN
• Strahan: thirsty v. non-thirsty words
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SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
• Decision “Did I detect something?”
• Information acquisition
• Criterion
(basis/motive for judgment)
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SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
Possible Outcomes
Observer Response
“Yes, I see it”
“No, I don’t see it”
Signal Present
Hit (correct)
Miss (mistake)
Signal Absent
False alarm
(mistake)
Correct rejection
(correct)
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SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
Possible Outcomes
Observer Response
“Yes, I see it”
“No, I don’t see it”
Signal Present
Hit (correct)
Miss (mistake)
Signal Absent
False alarm
(mistake)
Correct rejection
(correct)
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SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
Possible Outcomes
Observer Response
“Yes, I see it”
“No,
“No, I don’t see it”
Signal Present
Hit (correct)
Miss (mistake)
(mistake)
Signal Absent
False alarm
(mistake)
Correct rejection
(correct)
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SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
Possible Outcomes
Observer Response
“Yes, I see it”
“No, I don’t see it”
“No,
Signal Present
Hit (correct)
Miss (mistake)
Signal
Signal Absent
Absent
False alarm
(mistake)
Correct rejection
rejection
(correct)
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STROOP EFFECT
• As fast as you can, name each color of ink used to print each
of the rectangles below.
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STROOP EFFECT
• Now, as fast as you can, name the color of ink used to print
each word shown below, ignoring what each word says.
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FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION
• Attention
– focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment
– selective attention
• cocktail party effect (automatic selection)
• Stroop Effect (failure of selection)
– novelty, size, color,
movement, emotions
– emotion-induced blindness
– inattentional blindness
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FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION
• Perceptual Set
predisposition or readiness
to perceive something
in a particular way
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FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION
• Sensory Adaptation
– change in responsiveness
of sensory system
– based on level of
surrounding
stimulation
(darkened room,
bright outdoors)
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PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
• Wavelength: distance between peaks
– perceived as hue
– Some wavelengths beyond human sensation
• Amplitude: height of wave
– perceived as brightness
• Purity: mixture of wavelengths
– Perceived as saturation
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STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
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STRUCTURE OF THE EYE: RETINA
Photo-Receptor Cells
– Rods
• sensitive to even dim light, but not color
• function well in low illumination
• humans have ≈ 120 million rods
– Cones
• respond to color
• operate best under high illumination
• humans have ≈ 6 million cones
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STRUCTURE OF THE EYE: RETINA
• Fovea: Densely populated with cones vital to many visual tasks
Blind Spot
FOVEA
Blind spot: where the optic
nerve leaves the eyeball
Optic Nerve
Ganglion Cells
Bipolar Cells
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VISUAL PROCESSING
Left Visual Field
Right Visual Field
Pathway of Visual
Information
Retina
Optic Nerve
He
m Left
isp
he
re
He Rig
mi ht
sp
he
re
Optic Chiasm:
optic nerve
fibers divide
Thalamus
Visual Cortex
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VISUAL PROCESSING
• Feature Detectors
– highly-specialized cells in the visual cortex
– size, shape, color, movement, or combination
– deprivation studies: brain “learns” perception
•
Parallel Processing
•
Binding (by synchronous pulsing)
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COLOR VISION: THEORIES
• Trichromatic Theory
• Three Types of Receptors
– green, blue, and red cones
• Color Blindness
– one or more cone
types is inoperative
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COLOR VISION: AFTERIMAGES
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COLOR VISION: THEORIES
• Afterimage
– sensation remains after a stimulus is removed
– trichromatic theory cannot explain afterimages
• Opponent Process Theory
– complementary color pairs
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VISUAL PERCEPTION
• Organizing and interpreting visual signals
• Dimensions
– shape
– depth
– motion
– constancy
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VISUAL PERCEPTION: SHAPE
Gestalt Psychology
– perceptions are naturally organized according to certain
patterns
– whole is different from the sum of the parts
Gestalt Principles
– figure-ground relationship
– closure
– proximity
– similarity
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FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIP
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GESTALT PRINCIPLES
Closure
Proximity
Similarity
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VISUAL PERCEPTION: DEPTH
• The brain constructs perception of 3D
from 2D images processed by the retina
• Binocular cues
– disparity
– convergence
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MONOCULAR CUES: FAMILIAR SIZE, OVERLAP
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MONOCULAR CUES: SHADING
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MONOCULAR CUES:
HEIGHT IN FIELD, LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
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MONOCULAR CUES: TEXTURE
GRADIENTS
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VISUAL PERCEPTION: MOTION
• Humans have specialized motion detectors
• Apparent movement
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VISUAL PERCEPTION: CONSTANCY
• Perceptual Constancies
– recognition that objects do not
physically change despite changes
in vantage point and viewing
conditions
– sensory information (retinal
image) changes, but perceptual
interpretation does not
– size, shape, and color constancies
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PROPERTIES OF SOUND
• Wavelength: distance between peaks
– determines frequency
– perceived as pitch
– some wavelengths cannot be
perceived
• Amplitude: height of wave
– perceived as loudness
• Mixture of Wavelengths:
Complex Sounds
– perceived as timbre / tone saturation
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STRUCTURE OF THE EAR
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THEORIES OF HEARING
• Place Theory of Pitch Perception
– location of stimulation is important
– only explains perception of high frequencies
• Frequency Theory of Pitch Perception
– frequency of nerve firing
• limitations of neuronal firing rate
– volley principle
• cell clusters can exceed limitations of firing rate
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AUDITORY PROCESSING
• Pathway of Auditory Information
Cochlea  auditory nerve  brain stem  temporal lobe
• most information crosses to other hemisphere
• Localizing Sound
– intensity
• distance
• sound shadow
– timing
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OTHER SENSES: PREVIEW
• Skin Senses
– touch, temperature, and pain
• Chemical
– taste and smell
• Kinesthetic
• Vestibular
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OTHER SENSES: SKIN (CUTANEOUS)
• Touch
receptors  spinal cord  thalamus 
 somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe
• Temperature
– thermoreceptors: warm and cold
– simultaneous warm and cold
perceived as hot
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SENSATION & SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
• Empathy: Feeling what others are feeling
– “feeling” refers here to emotions and perspectives
• MTS (Mirror-Touch-Synesthesia)
– Literally feeling what you see another person feel
• sense of touch
– Doesn’t happen when they see a non-person touched
– Overactive mirror neurons
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OTHER SENSES: SKIN
• Pain
– mechanical, heat, chemical receptors
– fast and slow pain pathways
– endorphins
– perception of pain can vary
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OTHER SENSES: CHEMICAL
• Taste
– receptors on tongue: papillae
– sweet, sour, bitter, salty… also
umami etc.
– cultural influence (umami)
• Smell (olfactory sense)
– olfactory epithelium
– temporal lobe and limbic
system
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OTHER SENSES
• Kinesthetic
– movement, posture, orientation
– muscle fibers and joints
– proprioceptive feedback
• Vestibular
– balance and acceleration
– semicircular canals
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HEALTH AND WELLNESS
• Protecting ones vision and hearing
– diet
– medical examinations
– avoiding chronic exposure
• Treating our senses to the
great outdoors
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CHAPTER REVIEW
• Describe sensation and perception.
• Describe the structural components of the eye and explain how the brain
processes visual information.
• Identify the structural parts and functions of the ear and explain how the
ear detects sound.
• Explain how the skin, chemical, kinesthetic, and vestibular senses work.
• Identify the everyday practices associated with protecting vision and
hearing.
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Description Discuss what three concepts, ideas, or aspects of chapters 3 and 4 stood out to you the most, and why. Be sure to include some specific details and perhaps even share how your new knowledge of the brain, sensation, and perception may impact your daily life in a positive way.Chapter 5 States of Consciousness © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education Chapter Preview • Consciousness • Sleep and Dreams • Psychoactive Drugs • Hypnosis • Mediation 3-2 ©McGraw-Hill Education The Nature of Consciousness What is consciousness? awareness • of external events and internal sensations which occurs under conditions of Arousal • ways that awareness is regulated: alert versus relaxed/drowsy • reticular activating system global brain workspace 3-3 ©McGraw-Hill Education Theory of Mind Knowledge that People Think and Have Private Experiences • Individuals with autism spectrum disorder lack TOM 3-4 Photo credit: © Bananastock/Alamy ©McGraw-Hill Education Levels of Awareness (1 of 4) Higher-Level Consciousness • controlled processing • executive function • Planning, problem solving • Actively focus efforts toward a goal • requires attention 3-5 Photo credit: Ingram Publishing ©McGraw-Hill Education Levels of Awareness (2 of 4) Lower-Level Consciousness • automatic processes • require little attention/conscious effort • do not interfere with other ongoing activities • Daydreaming • wandering thoughts • fantasy, imagination, rumination • potentially useful (reminding, solving) 3-6 Photo credit: © Paul Bradbury / age fotostock ©McGraw-Hill Education Levels of Awareness (3 of 4) Altered States of Consciousness • drug states • fatigue, illness, trauma, deprivation • meditation, hypnosis • mental disorders 3-7 Photo credit: © Jules Frazier/Getty Images RF ©McGraw-Hill Education Levels of Awareness (4 of 4) Subconscious Awareness • Incubation • parallel processing Sleep and Dreams • low levels of consciousness of outside world No Awareness • unconscious (censored) thought—Freud • non-conscious processes 3-8 ©McGraw-Hill Education Biological Rhythms Periodic Physiological Fluctuations 1. Annual or seasonal 2. 24-hour cycles = circadian rhythms • monitored by suprachiasmatic nucleus • controlled by biological clocks Access the text alternative for slide images. ©McGraw-Hill Education 3-9 Biological Clocks Desynchronizing the Clock • jet lag • shift-work problems Resetting the Clock • bright light • melatonin 3-10 Photo credit: © Tim Pannell/Corbis RF ©McGraw-Hill Education Why Do We Need Sleep? Adaptive Evolutionary Function • Safety • energy conservation/ efficiency Restorative Function • body rejuvenation & growth Brain Plasticity • enhances synaptic connections • memory consolidation 3-11 ©McGraw-Hill Education Sleep Deprivation Chronic sleep deprivation results in… • decreased activity in thalamus and prefrontal cortex • inability to sustain attention • poor decision making and problem solving Why are Americans sleep deprived? 3-12 ©McGraw-Hill Education Stages of Sleep (1 of 6) EEG measures electrical activity in the brain • identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep. Wakefulness • beta waves (W-alert) • • • high frequency low amplitude desynchronous Access the text alternative for slide images. ©McGraw-Hill Education 3-13 Stages of Sleep (2 of 6) EEG measures electrical activity in the brain • identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep. Wakefulness • alpha waves (W-relaxed) • Lower frequency • increase in amplitude • synchronous 3-14 ©McGraw-Hill Education Stages of Sleep (3 of 6) EEG measures electrical activity in the brain • identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep. Stage N-1 • theta waves • Even slow frequency • low amplitude (but greater than alpha) 3-15 ©McGraw-Hill Education Stages of Sleep (4 of 6) EEG measures electrical activity in the brain • identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep. Stage N-2 • Continued theta waves, plus: • sleep spindles: sudden increase in wave frequency • still light sleep 3-16 ©McGraw-Hill Education Stages of Sleep (5 of 6) EEG measures electrical activity in the brain • identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep. Stage N-3 • delta waves • slowest frequency and highest amplitude • deep sleep • bedwetting, sleep walking, sleep talking 3-17 ©McGraw-Hill Education Stages of Sleep (6 of 6) EEG measures electrical activity in the brain • identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep. Stage R (REM Sleep) • Rapid Eye Movements • EEG similar to relaxed wakefulness • dreaming 3-18 ©McGraw-Hill Education Sleep Cycles Typically 5 cycles a night 90 to 100 minutes per cycle Sleep patterns change during the night. Typical night includes • 60% – Stages N1 & N2 sleep • 20% – Stage N3 sleep • 20% – REM sleep 3-19 ©McGraw-Hill Education Sleep and the Brain Reticular Formation • critical role in sleep and arousal Neurotransmitters (NT) • serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine • levels vary across sleep stages 3-20 ©McGraw-Hill Education Sleep Across the Life Span Access the text alternative for slide images. ©McGraw-Hill Education 3-21 Sleep and Disease Sleep problems common in diabetes, heart/liver disease, pneumonia. Infectious diseases induce sleep. Sleep problems are common in those with mental disorders. 3-22 ©McGraw-Hill Education Sleep Disorders Insomnia Sleep Walking, Talking, and Eating Nightmares and Night terrors Narcolepsy Sleep Apnea 3-23 ©McGraw-Hill Education Theories of Dreaming Historical and Religious Significance Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach • manifest and latent content Cognitive Theory • information processing and memory • general life concerns, preoccupations Activation-Synthesis Theory • brain makes “sense” out of random brain activity 3-24 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs (1 of 2) Act on nervous system to: • alter consciousness • modify perceptions • change moods Why do people take drugs? What are the trends in adolescent use? 3-25 Photo credit: Medioimages/PictureQuest ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Effects on Users Direct and indirect health effects School, work, and relationship problems 3-26 Photo credit: Stockbyte/Getty Images ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs (2 of 2) Continued use can lead to… • Tolerance • Addiction • Physical dependence and unpleasant withdrawal • Psychological dependence 3-27 ©McGraw-Hill Education Drugs and the Brain How does the brain become addicted? Dopamine in reward pathways 3-28 ©McGraw-Hill Education Reward Pathway for Psychoactive Drugs Access the text alternative for slide images. ©McGraw-Hill Education 3-29 Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (1 of 5) Slow down mental and physical activity 3-30 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (2 of 5) Alcohol • Slows down inhibition & judgment areas of brain • Increases GABA • Overdose can lead to sleep, coma, death • Linked to violence/aggression/irresponsible behaviors • Alcoholism (1 in 9 drinkers) 3-31 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (3 of 5) Barbiturates • • • • • Nembutal / Seconal Makes sleepy Can lead to memory loss, impaired functioning, death Highly addictive, risk of seizure with abrupt withdrawal Medical use has been replace by tranquilizers 3-32 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (4 of 5) Tranquilizers • • • • Valium / Xanax Reduce anxiety, induce relaxation Can lead to drowsiness, confusion Highly addictive 3-33 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants (5 of 5) Opioids • Narcotics (Opium / Heroine / Morphine / Methodone) • Pain killer • Act on endorphin receptors • Can lead to euphoria, increased appetites, death • Highly addictive, painful withdrawal 3-34 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (1 of 5) Increase CNS Activity Caffeine • Most widely used psychoactive drug • Coffee, Tea, Certain Soft Drinks, Energy Drinks, Chocolate • Can lead to mood changes, anxiety, insomnia, headaches • Withdrawal symptoms include apathy, concentration difficulties 3-35 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (2 of 5) Increase CNS Activity Nicotine • Tobacco • Enormous health risks • Alleviates anger/anxiety/pain, can improve alertness • Withdrawal symptoms include irritability, appetite, distraction 3-36 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (3 of 5) Increase CNS Activity Amphetamines • Used to boost energy, stay awake, curb appetite, ADHD • Crystal Meth: Intense high; huge come-down 3-37 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (4 of 5) Increase CNS Activity Cocaine • Half hour rush followed by agitation/depression • Crack, perhaps most addictive substance known 3-38 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants (5 of 5) Increase CNS Activity MDMA (Ecstasy) • Also halucinogenic • Users tend to feel warm bonds with others • Increased sexual risk-taking • Releases serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine • Impairs memory and cognition 3-39 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens (1 of 3) Modify perceptual experiences 3-40 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens (2 of 3) Modify Perceptual Experiences Marijuana • Hemp, Cannabis sativa / Hashish / THC • Affects anandamide receptors, widely distributed in the brain • Mixture of psychological effects: Hard to classify • Affects mood, appetite, blood pressure. • Smoking can damage lungs • Medical uses: AIDS, cancer, pain. 3-41 ©McGraw-Hill Education Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens (3 of 3) Modify Perceptual Experiences LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) • • • • Visual hallucinations. Time perception prolonged Pleasurable or grotesque/horrific Primarily acts on serotonin Can result in mood swings, impaired attention/memory 3-42 ©McGraw-Hill Education Hypnosis (1 of 2) Hypnosis is marked by… • altered attention and expectation • unusual receptiveness to suggestions 3-43 Photo credit: Stockbyte/Punchstock Images ©McGraw-Hill Education Hypnosis (2 of 2) Four Steps in Hypnosis 1. Distractions are minimized 2. Told to concentrate on something specific 3. Told what to expect 4. Certain obvious events/feelings are suggested There are individual variations in ability to be hypnotized. 3-44 ©McGraw-Hill Education Explaining Hypnosis Divided State of Consciousness • obedient to hypnotist • hidden observer Social Cognitive Behavior • normal conscious state • social expectations for how to act hypnotized 3-45 ©McGraw-Hill Education Uses of Hypnosis Hypnosis is used to… • treat various health issues • alcoholism • smoking • somnambulism • PTSD • effectiveness is debatable • Can reduce experience of pain. 3-46 ©McGraw-Hill Education Meditation A peaceful state of mind, not occupied by worry Mindfulness meditation used to treat a variety of conditions (for example, depression, stress, chronic pain). Lovingkindness meditation reduces prejudice. 3-47 ©McGraw-Hill Education Chapter Review Discuss the nature of consciousness. Explain the nature of sleep and dreams. Identify the uses and types of psychoactive drugs. Describe hypnosis. Discuss the role of the conscious mind in constructing a happy and healthy life. 3-48 ©McGraw-Hill Education CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception Photo: ©swissmediavision/E+/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or displays CHAPTER PREVIEW: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Basic Principles Vision Other Senses Hearing Health and Wellness © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display BASIC PRINCIPLES Sensation the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment Perception the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSATION AND PERCEPTION • Bottom-Up Processing – initiated by sensory input – outside world’s influence on perception • Top-Down Processing – initiated by cognitive processing – internal/mental world’s influence on perception • expectations & prior understanding Unified Information Processing System © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSATION Sensory Receptors – specialized cells that selectively detect and transmit sensory information to the brain – cells send signals via distinct neural pathways © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSATION • Synesthesia one sense induces an experience in another sense (e.g., lexical or grapheme synesthesia) • Phantom Limb Pain Ingram Publishing © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSATION • Photoreception (vision) detection of light • Mechanoreception (touch) detection of pressure, vibration, and movement • Chemoreception (smell and taste) detection of chemical stimuli © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSORY THRESHOLDS Absolute Threshold the minimum amount of energy an organism can detect 50% of the time © Image Source Plus/Alamy Stock Photo © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSORY THRESHOLDS Noise irrelevant and competing stimuli Chase Jarvis / Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSORY THRESHOLDS Difference Thresholds – how much stimulus change is necessary for detection? – Just Noticeable Difference (JND) • JND increases with stimulus magnitude Courtesy of X-Rite, Inc. © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSORY THRESHOLDS Weber’s Law to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount) © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION (c) Brand X Pictures/PunchStock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION • Influence of information below the level of conscious awareness • Vicary: EAT POPCORN • Strahan: thirsty v. non-thirsty words (c) Brand X Pictures/PunchStock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY • Decision “Did I detect something?” • Information acquisition • Criterion (basis/motive for judgment) Monty Rakusen/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY Possible Outcomes Observer Response “Yes, I see it” “No, I don’t see it” Signal Present Hit (correct) Miss (mistake) Signal Absent False alarm (mistake) Correct rejection (correct) © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY Possible Outcomes Observer Response “Yes, I see it” “No, I don’t see it” Signal Present Hit (correct) Miss (mistake) Signal Absent False alarm (mistake) Correct rejection (correct) © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY Possible Outcomes Observer Response “Yes, I see it” “No, “No, I don’t see it” Signal Present Hit (correct) Miss (mistake) (mistake) Signal Absent False alarm (mistake) Correct rejection (correct) © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY Possible Outcomes Observer Response “Yes, I see it” “No, I don’t see it” “No, Signal Present Hit (correct) Miss (mistake) Signal Signal Absent Absent False alarm (mistake) Correct rejection rejection (correct) © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display STROOP EFFECT • As fast as you can, name each color of ink used to print each of the rectangles below. © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display STROOP EFFECT • Now, as fast as you can, name the color of ink used to print each word shown below, ignoring what each word says. © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION • Attention – focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment – selective attention • cocktail party effect (automatic selection) • Stroop Effect (failure of selection) – novelty, size, color, movement, emotions – emotion-induced blindness – inattentional blindness David De Lossy/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION • Perceptual Set predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way Royalty-Free/CORBIS © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION • Sensory Adaptation – change in responsiveness of sensory system – based on level of surrounding stimulation (darkened room, bright outdoors) Purestock/SuperStock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display PROPERTIES OF LIGHT • Wavelength: distance between peaks – perceived as hue – Some wavelengths beyond human sensation • Amplitude: height of wave – perceived as brightness • Purity: mixture of wavelengths – Perceived as saturation © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display STRUCTURE OF THE EYE © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display STRUCTURE OF THE EYE: RETINA Photo-Receptor Cells – Rods • sensitive to even dim light, but not color • function well in low illumination • humans have ≈ 120 million rods – Cones • respond to color • operate best under high illumination • humans have ≈ 6 million cones © Science Source © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display STRUCTURE OF THE EYE: RETINA • Fovea: Densely populated with cones vital to many visual tasks Blind Spot FOVEA Blind spot: where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball Optic Nerve Ganglion Cells Bipolar Cells © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display VISUAL PROCESSING Left Visual Field Right Visual Field Pathway of Visual Information Retina Optic Nerve He m Left isp he re He Rig mi ht sp he re Optic Chiasm: optic nerve fibers divide Thalamus Visual Cortex © RubberBall Productions/Getty Images RF © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display VISUAL PROCESSING • Feature Detectors – highly-specialized cells in the visual cortex – size, shape, color, movement, or combination – deprivation studies: brain “learns” perception • Parallel Processing • Binding (by synchronous pulsing) © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display COLOR VISION: THEORIES • Trichromatic Theory • Three Types of Receptors – green, blue, and red cones • Color Blindness – one or more cone types is inoperative © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display COLOR VISION: AFTERIMAGES © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display COLOR VISION: THEORIES • Afterimage – sensation remains after a stimulus is removed – trichromatic theory cannot explain afterimages • Opponent Process Theory – complementary color pairs © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display VISUAL PERCEPTION • Organizing and interpreting visual signals • Dimensions – shape – depth – motion – constancy (c) Michael Hitoshi/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display VISUAL PERCEPTION: SHAPE Gestalt Psychology – perceptions are naturally organized according to certain patterns – whole is different from the sum of the parts Gestalt Principles – figure-ground relationship – closure – proximity – similarity (c) Brand X Pictures/PunchStock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIP © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display GESTALT PRINCIPLES Closure Proximity Similarity © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display VISUAL PERCEPTION: DEPTH • The brain constructs perception of 3D from 2D images processed by the retina • Binocular cues – disparity – convergence (c) Comstock/PunchStock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display MONOCULAR CUES: FAMILIAR SIZE, OVERLAP © Paul Bradbury / age fotostock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display MONOCULAR CUES: SHADING (c) Pixtal/age Fotostock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display MONOCULAR CUES: HEIGHT IN FIELD, LINEAR PERSPECTIVE Image courtesy National Gallery of Art © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display MONOCULAR CUES: TEXTURE GRADIENTS © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display VISUAL PERCEPTION: MOTION • Humans have specialized motion detectors • Apparent movement © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display VISUAL PERCEPTION: CONSTANCY • Perceptual Constancies – recognition that objects do not physically change despite changes in vantage point and viewing conditions – sensory information (retinal image) changes, but perceptual interpretation does not – size, shape, and color constancies Purestock/SuperStock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display PROPERTIES OF SOUND • Wavelength: distance between peaks – determines frequency – perceived as pitch – some wavelengths cannot be perceived • Amplitude: height of wave – perceived as loudness • Mixture of Wavelengths: Complex Sounds – perceived as timbre / tone saturation Robert Kohlhuber/Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display STRUCTURE OF THE EAR © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display THEORIES OF HEARING • Place Theory of Pitch Perception – location of stimulation is important – only explains perception of high frequencies • Frequency Theory of Pitch Perception – frequency of nerve firing • limitations of neuronal firing rate – volley principle • cell clusters can exceed limitations of firing rate © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display AUDITORY PROCESSING • Pathway of Auditory Information Cochlea  auditory nerve  brain stem  temporal lobe • most information crosses to other hemisphere • Localizing Sound – intensity • distance • sound shadow – timing © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display OTHER SENSES: PREVIEW • Skin Senses – touch, temperature, and pain • Chemical – taste and smell • Kinesthetic • Vestibular (c) Creatas / PunchStock © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display OTHER SENSES: SKIN (CUTANEOUS) • Touch receptors  spinal cord  thalamus   somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe • Temperature – thermoreceptors: warm and cold – simultaneous warm and cold perceived as hot (c) Vicky Kasala / Getty Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display SENSATION & SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY • Empathy: Feeling what others are feeling – “feeling” refers here to emotions and perspectives • MTS (Mirror-Touch-Synesthesia) – Literally feeling what you see another person feel • sense of touch – Doesn’t happen when they see a non-person touched – Overactive mirror neurons © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display OTHER SENSES: SKIN • Pain – mechanical, heat, chemical receptors – fast and slow pain pathways – endorphins – perception of pain can vary (c) Ingram Publishing © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display OTHER SENSES: CHEMICAL • Taste – receptors on tongue: papillae – sweet, sour, bitter, salty… also umami etc. – cultural influence (umami) • Smell (olfactory sense) – olfactory epithelium – temporal lobe and limbic system (c) Jupiter Images © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display OTHER SENSES • Kinesthetic – movement, posture, orientation – muscle fibers and joints – proprioceptive feedback • Vestibular – balance and acceleration – semicircular canals (c) Thomas Coex/AFP/GettyImages © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display HEALTH AND WELLNESS • Protecting ones vision and hearing – diet – medical examinations – avoiding chronic exposure • Treating our senses to the great outdoors (c) Ingram Publishing © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display CHAPTER REVIEW • Describe sensation and perception. • Describe the structural components of the eye and explain how the brain processes visual information. • Identify the structural parts and functions of the ear and explain how the ear detects sound. • Explain how the skin, chemical, kinesthetic, and vestibular senses work. • Identify the everyday practices associated with protecting vision and hearing. © McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display Purchase answer to see full attachment

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