Description
Adolescence
Please select Two of the Case Studies below and answer the questions with that case.
Case Study 6.1: David’s Coming-Out Process
What developmental challenges for sexual minority youth, as articulated in David’s story?
How do you think David will negotiate Erikson’s stage of identity development?
What are the important considerations for successfully negotiating these adolescent developmental tasks for sexual minority youth?
Case Study 6.2: Carl’s Struggle for Identity
Where does Carl’s label “underachiever” come from? How has it developed over time and in context?
How do peers define group labels? What are the social consequences?
Change one demographic characteristic about this case. How might peer group norms and subsequent labeling change? Why?
Case Study 6.3: Monica’s Quest for Mastery
Describe Monica’s achievements. How does she feel about them? What do others think of them?
What are the driving influences on Monica’s achievements and her activity choices?
In what ways might Monica utilize her community of peers to improve her achievement opportunities?
In addition to your discussion, you must provide meaningful and constructive feedback or comments on at least two classmates’ discussions.
resources
Video Links
Why School Should Start Later for TeensLinks to an external site.
Description: Wendy Troxel argues that teens don’t get enough sleep, and it’s not because of Snapchat, social lives or hormones—it’s because of public policy.
Required Texts
Primary Textbook
Hutchinson, E. D. & Contributors (2019). Dimensions of human behavior: The changing
life course (6th Ed.). Sage Publications. ISBN-13: 978-1544339344
Supporting Textbook
Hutchison, E. D. & Contributors (2019). Dimensions of Human Behavior: Person and
Environment (6th Ed.). Sage Publications. ISBN-13: 978-1544339290
Recommended Texts and Other Material
American Psychological Association (2020). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (7th Ed.). APA. Alcohol’s Effect on Teenage BrainLinks to an external site.
Description: An explanation of the effects of alcohol abuse on the developing teen brain
Audio Link
Teens and Gender Links to an external site.
Description: NPR’s Lulu Garcia-Navarro talks with Nic Rider, post-doctoral fellow at the University of Minnesota whose research shows more teens in the U.S. are identifying as transgender or gender nonconforming.
Web Links
CAFO’s Aging Out Initiative: Helping Teens Transition into AdulthoodLinks to an external site.
Description: Scott Brown, Coordinator of the Christian Alliance for Orphans (CAFO) Aging Out Initiative, gathers success stories of organizations that are helping aging out youth and are creating solutions.
Teens, Technology and Overuse, Part 1
https://youtu.be/KCblTkZWQGsChapter 6
Adolescence
Learning Objectives
• 6.1 Compare one’s own emotional and cognitive reactions to three
case studies.
• 6.2 Analyze how the status of adolescence has varied across time
and place.
• 6.3 Describe some of the transitions made in adolescence.
• 6.4 Summarize biological, psychological, social, and spiritual
development during adolescence.
• 6.5 Analyze major themes in adolescent sexual development.
• 6.6 Describe some potential challenges to adolescent
development.
• 6.7 Give examples of risk factors and protective factors for
adolescent development.
• 6.8 Apply knowledge of adolescence to recommend guidelines for
social work engagement, assessment, intervention, and
evaluation.
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Case Studies
17-year-old male, son of
Bolivian immigrants, issues of
coming out as gay
17-year-old male, lone-parent
family, estranged from father,
6.2 Carl’s Struggle for Identity
underachieving at school, drug
experimentation, overweight
High-achieving high school
6.3 Monica’s Quest for Mastery senior female, college planning,
racial identity issues
6.1 David’s Coming-Out
Process
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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The Social Construction of Adolescence
Across Time and Space
• Worldwide, the current generation of adolescents is the
largest in history.
• Adolescence was invented as a psychosocial concept in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries as the U.S. made the
transition from an agrarian to an urban-industrial society.
– Juvenile justice system developed because juvenile offenders
were viewed differently from adults.
• Not recognized in all cultures
• With U.S. industrialization, child labor legislation and
compulsory education policies were passed
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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The Social Construction of Adolescence
Across Time and Space (cont’d)
• With U.S. industrialization, child labor legislation and
compulsory education policies were passed
• Adolescents moved from workplace to the school and
become economically dependent on parents
• Hall (1904): adolescence is a period of “storm and stress.”
• Post-industrial period
– Families were better positioned to support adolescents’
preparation for adulthood
– Adolescents living in a wider array of diverse and fluid family
situations
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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The Social Construction of Adolescence Across
Time and Space (cont’d)
• The beginning of the 21st century have focused o
adolescents as “trouble.” (Finn, 2009).
• Society is clear about what adolescents must avoid, but not
as clear about what positive things they need to achieve
(Kroger, 2007).
• (Recent) Concern for this age group has prompted a
movement to focus on adolescents “as resources to be
developed, and not as problems to be managed.”
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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The Transition from Childhood to
Adulthood
• Often viewed as period between childhood and adulthood
– Adolescence from the Latin verb adolescere, which means “to grow
into maturity.”
• Many cultures have rites of passage* to mark this time
– Found mainly in nonindustrialized societies
– In Western cultures where there are no formal ceremonies,
adolescents may create their own (hazing, tattooing, dieting,
dress, etc.)
– Latino quinceañera
– Jewish bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah
• Exhibit 6.1 (next slide) summarizes the typical biological,
psychological, and social developments in these three phases.
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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The Transition from Childhood to Adulthood (cont’d)
Exhibit 6.1 • Typical Adolescent Development
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Biological Aspects of Adolescence
• Puberty*:
– Affects brain development, sexual maturation, levels
and cycles of hormones, and physical growth
– Increased sex hormones* stimulate the development
and functioning of the reproductive systems.
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Biological Aspects of Adolescence
(cont’d)
• Primary sex characteristics* are those directly
related to the reproductive organs and external
genitalia.
– Males: Growth of penis and scrotum
– Females: Growth of ovaries, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and
labia
• Secondary sex characteristics* are those not
directly related to the reproductive organs and
external genitalia.
– Males: Facial hair and deeper voices
– Females: Enlarged breasts and hips
– Both: Sweat gland changes
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Biological Aspects of Adolescence
(cont’d)
• Menarche* (ages 10–14) the onset of
menstruation
• Spermarche* (ages 10–16) the onset of the
ability to ejaculate mobile sperm
• Generally girls begin puberty about 2 years
earlier than boys
• In the U.S., low socioeconomic status is
associated with early puberty, but in parts of the
world with high rates of extreme poverty, puberty
is often delayed.
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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The Adolescent Brain
• Parts of the brain that control planning, decision making,
impulse control, language, memory and reasoning have
developed prior to puberty.
• Period of overproduction of gray matter just prior to
puberty and then a second version of pruning. The brain
gets more developed.
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The Adolescent Brain (cont’d)
• Higher order brain centers, like the prefrontal cortex,
fully develop until young adulthood
– “Cold cognition” problem-solving occurs when the
adolescent is alone and calm, as he or she typically would be
in the laboratory.
– “Hot cognition” problem-solving occurs in situations where
teens are with peers, emotions are running high, and so on.
• Compared to adults, adolescents:
– 1. Less levels of maturity, responsibility, impulse
control, and self-regulation
– 2. Less autonomous, more susceptible to peer
pressure
– 3. Less capable of weighing potential consequences
and considering future implications of behavior
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Nutrition, Exercise, and Sleep
• Adolescents often do not have a satisfactory diet
to support growth and development
– For example, skipping breakfast may cause lower
levels of energy and lower scores on cognitive tests.
• Regular physical activity (60 min per day) is
recommended
– It should include cardiovascular conditioning, stretching
exercises for flexibility, and resistance exercises or calisthenics
for muscle strength and endurance.
• Tendency to be more alert late at night and wake later in
the morning
• Less than one third of U.S. high school students get
sufficient amount of sleep
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Psychological Aspects of
Adolescence
• Psychological reactions to biological changes
– Adolescent females consistently more dissatisfied
with body shape
– Both sexes feel pressure to conform to specific
appearance ideals and rules
– Reactions affected by type of information and level of
support given
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Changes in Cognition
• Development occurs in three areas:
– Improved reasoning skills
• The ability to consider a range of possibilities, to think
hypothetically, and to engage in logical analysis
– Abstract thinking
• The ability to imagine things not seen or experienced
– Metacognition
• The ability to think about thinking
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Changes in Cognition
• Adolescents are capable of hypothesizing beyond
present circumstances
• Developing brain needs social environments that
encourage hypothetical, abstract reasoning and
opportunities to investigate the world
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Changes in Cognition
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Identity Development
• Identity is a “person’s self-definition as a separate and distinct
individual, including behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes.”
• Social identity, an important aspect of identity, is the part of the
self-concept that comes from knowledge of one’s membership in a
social group and the emotional significance of that membership
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Theories of Self and Identity
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Theories of Self and Identity
• Exhibit 6.2 (next slide) provides an overview of six
theorists: Freud, Erikson, Kegan, Marcia, Piaget, and
Kohlberg.
– All six help to explain how a concept of self or identity develops,
and all six suggest that it cannot develop fully before
adolescence.
– Piaget and Kohlberg suggest that some individuals may not
reach these higher levels of identity development at all.
– For more information (click): Freud – genital stage; Erikson identity vs role confusion; Kegan – affiliation vs abandonment;
Marcia – ego-identity status, Piaget – formal operational stage,
and Kohlberg – postconventional morality.
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Theories of Self and Identity
Exhibit 6.2 • Theories of Self or Identity in Adolescence
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Theories of Self and Identity
• James Marcia (1966, 1980) expanded on Erikson’s notion that
adolescents struggle with the issue of identity versus role diffusion,
and his theory is the most researched of adolescent identity.
Marcia proposed that adolescents
vary in how easily they go about
developing a personal identity,
and he described four identity
statuses based on two aspects
of identity development—the
amount of exploration being done
toward identity development and
the amount of commitment to a
particular identity:
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Theories of Self and Identity
• Rosenberg (1986) provided another useful model of
identity to keep in mind while working with adolescents—
or perhaps to share with adolescents in the process of
identity formation.
– His model includes both social identity and
psychological identity but also incorporates physical
traits, which taps into the important role that body
image plays in adolescent development.
– Rosenberg suggests that identity comprises three
major parts, see Exhibit 6.3 (next slide).
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Theories of Self and Identity
Exhibit 6.3 • Rosenberg’s Model of Identity
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Theories of Self and Identity
• Exhibit 6.4 (next slide) uses Rosenberg’s model to
analyze the identities of David Costa, Carl Fleischer, and
Monica Golden (i.e., case studies Chapter 6).
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Theories of Self and Identity (cont’d)
Exhibit 6.4 • Examples of Adolescent Identity
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Theories of Self and Identity (cont’d)
• Four ways individuals can try on and develop a
preference for certain identities:
1. Future orientation
• They are able to consider the future, and they are able to
construct abstract thoughts.
2. Role experimentation
• Experiment with social roles
3. Exploration
• Refers to the comfort an adolescent has with trying new
things.
4. Self-evaluation
• During the quest for identity, adolescents are constantly sizing
themselves up against their peers.
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Gender Identity
• Gender identity* is elaborated on and
revised during adolescence
• Adolescents may experience gender
dysphoria
• Trans: Transgender, transsexuals,
transvestites
• Gender identity is different from sexual
orientation
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Cultural Identity
• Central to identity in adolescents of ethnic
minority groups
• Adolescents often evaluate their ethnic
background and explore ethnic identity
• Positive ethnic identity benefits:
– Higher levels of self-esteem
– Lower levels of depression
– Buffer consequences of adverse life events
and discrimination
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Social Aspects of Adolescence
• Relationships with family
– Process of individuation often begins during
adolescence
– U.S. mainstream culture places high value on
independence
– Assessment of adolescent individuation should be
culturally sensitive
– Adolescent’s struggle for independence can be strong
in a multigenerational family
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Relationships With Peers
• Adolescents begin to associate with peers
• Early adolescence:
– Friends selected based on gender and interests
– One close friend–stability of friendship isn’t high
– Larger peer group than in middle school–cliques
• Mid-adolescence:
– Peer group often includes opposite-sex friends
– Peer group organized around common interest-crowds
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Romantic Relationships
• Nearly all 13- and 14-year-olds report
romantic fantasies and a desire to date
• Most youth in the United States have been
involved in some kind of romantic
relationship by late adolescence
• Very little research on same-sex romantic
relationships
• Develop differently across cultures
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Relationships With Organizations,
Communities, and Institutions
• School
– In the U.S., youth are required to stay in school
through a large portion of adolescence.
• Broader community
– Recent growth in activism
– Volunteer work
• Work
– Opportunity for social interaction and financial
independence
– See Exhibit 6.5 (next slide)
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Exhibit 6.5 • Department of
Labor Guidelines for
Adolescent Paid Work
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Relationships With Organizations,
Communities, and Institutions
• Technology
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Adolescent Spirituality/Religiosity
• Adolescence is seen as a time of universal
spiritual awakening
• Sample categories for assessing adolescents:
– Neither spiritual nor religious
– Disconnected wonderers
– High spirituality/high religiosity
– Primarily spiritual
– Meditators
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Adolescent Sexuality
• Adolescents come to understand what it means to be a
sexual being
• Sexual decision-making:
– Often dependent on sociocultural factors
– When and how they begin to engage in sexual activity
is closely linked to what they perceive to be the
activities of their peers
– Shaped by cultural, religious, and moral beliefs
– Exploration often includes masturbation
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Sexual Orientation
• More fluid and complex than was once
thought
• Sexual minority youth have a higher
prevalence of emotional distress,
depression, self-harm, suicidal thinking,
and suicidal attempts
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Pregnancy and Childbearing
• Teenage pregnancy rates and birth rates vary by race
and ethnicity
• Adolescent pregnancies carry increased risks:
– Delayed prenatal care
– Mother may drop out of school or be unemployed
– Infant can have low birth weight and developmental
delays and disabilities
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Sexually Transmitted Infections
• One in every four sexually active teenage girls has an
STD
• Contextual and personal factors associated with STIs:
– Housing insecurity
– Exposure to crime
– Childhood sexual abuse
– Depression
– Frequent alcohol use
Hutchison, Dimensions of Human Behavior, 6e. © SAGE Publications, 2019
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Potential Challenges to Adolescent
Development
• Substance use and abuse
– Alcohol is the most widely used substance among all
adolescents
– Common reasons for use are wanting to experiment
and be social
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Potential Challenges to Adolescent
Development
• Juvenile delinquency
– Definition – When adolescents are found guilty of
committing either a crime (by adult standards) or a
status offense.
– In the U.S., persons older than 5 but younger than 18
can be arrested for anything for which an adult can be
arrested.
• Children < 6 are said not to possess “mens rea” or
“guilty mind”
• Teen can be arrested for status offenses*
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Bullying
Three types of bullying:
• Verbal bullying: Saying or writing mean things (teasing,
name calling, inappropriate sexual comments, taunting,
threatening to cause harm)
• Social/relationship bullying: Hurting a person’s
reputation (leaving someone out on purpose, telling
others not to be friends with someone, spreading rumors
about someone, publicly embarrassing someone)
• Physical bullying: Hurting a persons’ body or
possessions (hitting/kicking/pinching, spitting,
tripping/pushing, taking or breaking someone’s things,
making mean or rude hand gestures)
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School-to-Prison Pipeline
• Eight factors typically affect youth in school-to-prison
pipeline:
1. “Zero-tolerance” policies
2. High-stakes testing
3. Exclusionary discipline
4. Race/ethnicity
5. Gender identity/sexual orientation
6. Socioeconomic status
7. Disability/mental health
8. School climate
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School-to-Prison Pipeline (cont’d)
Exhibit 6.6 • Percentages of All School Suspensions and Expulsions by
Race/Ethnicity, 2011–2012
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Community Violence
• Adolescents are at particular risk for
exposure to violence
• School shootings:
– Targeted
– Government
– Terroristic
– Mass
– Rampage
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Dating Violence and Statutory Rape
• Women aged 16–24 are primary victims of
acquaintance rape*
• Dating violence and acquaintance rape are often
underreported and may be more prevalent than data
suggest
• Majority of high school counselors report that their
school does not have a protocol for responding to dating
violence
• Statutory rape*--age of consent differs between states
• Majority of statutory rape victims are females aged 14–
15
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Preventing Teen Dating Violence
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Poverty and Low Educational
Attainment
• Increases likelihood of:
– Low academic achievement
– Dropping out of school
– Teen pregnancy and childbearing
– Engaging in delinquent behavior
– Unemployment during adolescence and adulthood
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Obesity and Eating Disorders
• Dietary practices that
put adolescents at risk
for overall health
problems:
– Skipping meals
– Snacking, especially
on high-calorie, highfat, low-nutrition food
– Eating fast food
– Dieting
https://stateofchildhoodobesity.org/children1017/
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Depression and Suicide
• Probability of depression rises from 5% in early
adolescence to 20% by late adolescence
• Girls are about twice as likely to have a major depressive
disorder
• Adolescent depression may be underdiagnosed
• Some outward signs of depression:
– Poor academic performance
– Truancy
– Social withdrawal
– Antisocial behavior
– Changes in eating or sleeping patterns
– Low self-esteem
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Social Work Grand Challenge: Ensure
Healthy Development for All Youth
• Recommendations from the American Academy of Social
Work and Social Welfare (2016):
– Ensure that 10% of all public funds spent on young people
support effective prevention programs.
– Increase local and state capacity to support high-quality
implementation of effective preventive interventions.
– Develop community-level systems to monitor risk, protection,
and behavioral-health outcomes.
– Provide tested, effective, family-focused, preventive interventions
without cost to patients or families through primary health care
providers.
– Reduce the duration of untreated mental illness in young people.
– Train and enable a workforce for effective prevention practice.
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Risk Factors and Protective Factors
in Adolescence
• Girls have a better balance of risk and
protection in childhood, boys do in
adolescence
• Earlier risk factors: Childhood in chronic
poverty, alcoholic and psychotic parents,
moderate to severe physical disability
• Protective factors: Easy temperament,
positive social orientation in early childhood,
positive peer relationships in middle
childhood
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Implications for Social Work Practice
Adolescence is a vulnerable period. Adolescents’ bodies and psyches are
changing rapidly in transition from childhood to adulthood.
•
•
•
•
When working with adolescents, meet clients where they are physically,
psychologically, and socially—don’t assume that you can tell where they
are, and be aware that that place may change frequently.
Be familiar with typical adolescent development and with the possible
consequences of deviations from developmental timelines.
Be aware of, and respond to, the adolescent’s level of cognition and
comprehension. Assess the individual adolescent’s ability to contemplate
the future, to comprehend the nature of human relationships, to consolidate
specific knowledge into a coherent system, and to envision possible
consequences from a hypothetical list of actions.
Recognize that the adolescent may see you as an authority figure who is
not an ally. Develop skills in building rapport with adolescents. Avoid slang
terms until you have immersed yourself in adolescent culture long enough
to be certain of the meaning of the terms you use.
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Implications for Social Work Practice
• Assess the positive and negative effects of the school climate on the
adolescent in relation to such issues as early or late maturation,
popularity/sociability, culture, gender identity, and sexual orientation.
• Consider how to advocate for change in maladaptive school settings,
such as those with Eurocentric models or homophobic environments.
• Seek appropriate resources to provide information, support, or other
interventions to assist adolescents in resolving questions of gender
identity and sexual decision making.
• Link youth to existing suitable resources or programs, such as
extracurricular activities, education on STIs, prenatal care, and LGBTQ
(lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer) support groups.
• Provide information, support, or other interventions to assist
adolescents in making decisions regarding use of alcohol, tobacco, or
other drugs.
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Implications for Social Work Practice
• Develop skills to assist adolescents with physical and mental health
issues, such as nutritional problems, obesity, eating disorders,
depression, and suicide.
• Participate in research, policy development, and advocacy on behalf of
adolescents.
• Work at the community level to develop and sustain recreational and
social programs and safe places for young people.
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Web Resources
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